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For other uses, see Greek (disambiguation).
| Greeks (Έλληνες) | ||
|---|---|---|
 Ioannis Kapodistrias • Pericles • El Greco • Alexander the Great | ||
| Total population |
approx. 17,000,000 |
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| Regions with significant populations |
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| Language(s) | Greek | Religion(s) | Predominantly Greek Orthodox, with Roman, Greek Catholic, Greek Muslims, Protestant, and Dodekatheic minorities. | Footnotes |
a An estimated 3,000,000 claim Greek descent.United States Department of State: Background Note: Greece |
The Greeks (Greek: Έλληνες [ˈelines]) are a nation and ethnic group who have populated Greece and the various historical centers of the Greek world from the 17th century BC to the present day. Today they are primarily found in the Balkan peninsula of southeastern Europe, the Greek islands, Cyprus, and the Greek diaspora.
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established in most corners of the Mediterranean but Greek people have always been centered around the Aegean coasts, where the Greek language has been spoken since antiquity. Until the early 20th century Greeks were uniformly distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, Pontus, and Constantinople, regions which coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization. In the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) in 1923, a large-scale population exchange between Greece and Turkey transferred and confined ethnic Greeks almost entirely into the borders of the modern Greek state, that is, in areas where groups of Greek-speaking Indo-Europeans first established themselves about 1500 BC, as well as in Cyprus. Other ethnic Greek populations can be found from Southern Italy to the Caucasus and diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, the vast majority of Greeks are at least nominally adherents of Greek Orthodoxy.Encarta: Greece
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The Greek language has been spoken in the Greek peninsula (i.e. the southern Balkan region) for over 3,500 years (and in western Asia Minor for a little less),World Book 2005, "Greece" and has an unbroken literary history which makes it one of the oldest surviving branches of the Indo-European languages. From Ancient Greece the Greeks have inherited a sophisticated culture and language documented over three millennia.Modern Greek is recognizably the same language as that of Athens under Pericles in the 5th century BC. Few languages can demonstrate such continuity.
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history. By Western standards, the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language, whether Mycenaean, Byzantine or modern Greek. Byzantine Greeks valued the classical tradition, considered themselves the political heirs of Rome, and deemed themselves the ethnic, cultural, and literary heirs of ancient Greece. The use of the older self-descriptive ethnic term Hellenes revived during the era following the Greco-Latin clashes between the Byzantine Empire and the Western Crusaders in the 12th century. It regained some popularity through its use by late Byzantine Emperors and scholars such Gemistus Pletho and Ciriaco Pizzicolli. It became fairly common with the emergence, in the late 18th century, of the nation-state and its gradual consolidation, but it was not until the early 20th century that its popular use was firmly re-established.
The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos (έθνος in Greek), defined by possessing Greek culture, and having a Greek mother tongue, than by citizenship, religion or by being subjects to any particular country. However, the Greeks are self-identified as a genos (γένος in Greek) in the sense that they also share a common ancestry. The term Greek also referred to the Eastern Orthodox Christian inhabitants of the Rum Millet of the Ottoman Empire.
Greece became the first country in the Balkans to come into being, both as a nation-state and breaking away from the Ottoman Empire. The Greek revolutionary movement formed its own definition of Greekness out of the Byzantine and ancient Greek cultural heritage along with the influences of western nationalism. This attracted foreign support from the Philhellenes (meaning friends of the Greeks).
The Mycenaean proto-Greeks arrived in the area now referred to as \'Greece\' (the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula) in the 16th century BC and the first that can be considered \'Greek\' as an ethnic identity taking into account the Linear B syllabary (used for writing Mycenaean) as the earliest attested form of Greek. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007 ed., Mycenaean Civilization There are clear elements of cultural continuity through the Greek Dark Ages (1200 BC - 800 BC), until the advent of Classical Greece (800 BC onwards) and the rise of the Polis and in particular Athens. For example, in Homer\'s epic poems the Odyssey the Iliad - the latter describes the epic Trojan War - it is quite clear that he views the Greeks of Prehistory as the forefathers of the early classical civilization he inhabited Podzuweit, Christian (1982). "Die mykenische Welt und Troja". In: B. Hänsel (ed.), Südosteuropa zwischen 1600 und 1000 v. Chr., 65–88, the likes of Achilles and Odysseus were viewed by Athenians, as well as others, as prime-examples of the ideal citizen of a Polis.
The element of self-identification on its own clearly constitutes cultural continuity, but there are other elements as well that solidify this idea. The first being that Mycenaean Architecture--echoing influence from other civilizations around the basin, as well as the Mycenaeans\' own particular style, and owing as much to limitations of the geography of the area (see: Geography of Greece)--would eventually lead to the formation of Classical Greek Architecture and Hellenistic Architecture. For example, the ruins of the columns at Knossos echoing a very archaic version of the Doric style of architecture so widely used in the Classical period Chadwick, John (1976). The Mycenaean World. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-29037-6. .
Religion is another important factor, with the Mycenaeans own pantheon of gods mirroring in many ways the pantheon of that of the Classical Greeks, this influence defined not only culture but part of Classical Greece\'s value system as well as their art. There is also clear linguistic continuity between the Proto-Greek language and the various dialects of Classical Greece. In particular, the Greek language written in the Linear B script is clearly an archaic form of the latter Koine Greek language Burkert, Walter (1985). Greek Religion. Harvard University Press. .
These elements combined together do not amount to say, the same cultural output and continuity that Modern Greeks feel with Classical, Hellenistic and Byzantine periods of Greek History, but they nevertheless constitute the beginnings of the Greek identity, and the foundation, albeit in comparison to 5th century Athens a basic one, of Greece\'s Pagan religion, language, architecture and art.
Kouros of the Archaic period, Thebes Archaeological Museum.
Herodotus states that the Athenians declared, before the battle of Plataea, that they would not go over to Mardonius, because in the first place, they were bound to avenge the burning of the Acropolis; and, secondly, they would not betray their fellow Greeks, to whom they were bound by:
Bust of the queen Cleopatra Thea Philopator of Egypt
As Thucydides observes that the name of Hellas spread from a valley in Thessaly to the Greek-speaking peoples after the formation of the text of Homer (the Panellenes of Il. 2.530 are the troops of Thessaly, contrasting with the Achaeans), not long before his own time. This places the idea in the Archaic period, when Greeks discovered that the world was wider, wealthier, and more cultured than they had imagined. Homer\'s Trojan War is, indeed, a conflict among Greeks: the Trojans speak Greek (although most modern historians believe they were more likely an Anatolian people, based mostly on later translations of the story by late writers), bear Greek names, and worship the Greek gods; and Priam is descended from Zeus (see Alaksandu). The Carians are the only people Homer considers barbarophonoi.
Hellen, son of Deucalion, combined into one group the smaller tribes that participated in the Delphic Amphictyon, such as the Aeolians, the Achaeans, and the Dorians.
As early as the 5th century BC, Isocrates, after speaking of common origin and worship, says: "the name Hellenes suggests no longer a race but an intelligence, and... the title Hellenes is applied rather to those who share our culture than to those who share a common blood". Panegyric 4.50. After the 4th century BC and Alexander the Great\'s conquest of the East, Greek became the lingua franca of the East Mediterranean region and was widely spoken by educated non-Greeks.
After the creation of the Byzantine Empire, Greek culture changed from Hellenic (Greek pagan) to Eastern Roman (Greek Christian culture), and the word "Hellene" became associated with the pagan past. Distinctions of nationality still existed in the empire, but became secondary to religious considerations as the renewed empire used Christianity to maintain its cohesion. However, the Byzantine Empire was dominated by the Greek element to such an extent that Emperor Heraclius (575 CE - 641 CE) decided to make Greek the official language. From then on, the Roman and Greek cultures were virtually fused in the East. By that time, the Latin West had began referring to Byzantium as "Empire of the Greeks" (Imperium Graecorum).
Greek nationalism re-emerged in the 11th century within specific circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and the establishment of a number of Greek kingdoms (such as the Empire of Nicaea and the Despotate of Epirus). When the empire was revived in 1261, it became essentially a Greek national state. Adherence to Greek Orthodox rites and the Greek language, became the defining characteristic of the Greek people.
Under the Ottoman Empire, religion was the defining characteristic of "national" groups (milletler), so "Greeks" (Rumlar) were defined by the Ottomans as members of the Greek Orthodox Church, regardless of their language or ethnic origin. Conversely, those who adopted Islam during that period were considered \'Turks\', regardless of their language or origin. Yet, the Greeks themselves upheld the autocephalous concept whereby they maintained their unique ethno-religious identity and consistently distinguished themselves from other non-Greek Orthodox Christian populations. However, some Greeks such as Alexander Ypsilantis, expected non-Greek populations such as the Moldavians and the Wallachians to rise for Greek independence because they were Greek Orthodox Christians. However, both the Moldavians and the Wallachians were cognizant of their non-Greek identities and refused to contribute.
This strong relation between Greek national identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek state in 1830, and when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity. However, in many important respects, the Greek state adhered from its founding to remarkably secular principles. For instance, Jews were granted full citizens rights in 1830, the year Greece\'s independence was formally recognized, thus making Greece the second state in Europe (after France) with an emancipated Jewish community.
Today, the deeper integration of Greece into the Western strategic system and the effects of migration (both emigration from Greece in the 1950s and 1960s, and immigration into Greece in more recent years) have led to a perception of multiculturalism similar to that of Western European nations.
Modern studies have constructed Greek genetic trees revealing a strong degree of homogeneity between Greeks from different geographical locations. Median networks revealed that most of the Greek haplotypes are clustered to the five known haplogroups and that a number of haplotypes are shared among Greeks and other European and Near Eastern populations. Within the loci studied, the genetic composition of the Greeks indicates a significantly low level of heterogeneity with other European populations. (Feb 1999) "Genetic studies in 5 Greek population samples using 12 highly polymorphic DNA loci". Human Biology. (December 2001) "Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation in Greeks". Human Biology Vol. 73 (No. 6.): pp. 855-869..
Greek heroine Laskarina Bouboulina.
Throughout the centuries, the Greeks have been known by a number of names, including:
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/1B*.html LacusCurtius]) - Afterwards some of the Pelasgians who inhabited Thessaly, as it is now called, being obliged to leave their country, settled among the Aborigines and jointly with them made war upon the Sicels. It is possible that the Aborigines received them partly in the hope of gaining their assistance, but I believe it was chiefly on account of their kinship; for the Pelasgians, too, were a Greek nation originally from the Peloponnesus.Ovid, Metamorphoses, Book 12.1 (Perseus) - Here, when a sacrifice had been prepared to Jove, according to the custom of their land, and when the ancient altar glowed with fire, the Greeks observed an azure colored snake crawling up in a plane tree near the place where they had just begun their sacrifice..."Rejoice Pelasgian men, for we shall conquer; Troy will fall; although the toil of war must long continue--so the nine birds equal nine long years of war." And while he prophesied, the serpent, coiled about the tree, was transformed to a stone, curled crooked as a snake.Strabo,Geography, Book V, 2.4 (LacusCurtius) - As for the Pelasgi, almost all agree, in the first place, that some ancient tribe of that name spread throughout the whole of Greece, and particularly among the Aeolians of Thessaly...Again, Aeschylus, in his Suppliants, or else his Danaan Women, says that the race of the Pelasgi originated in that Argos which is round about Mycenae. And the Peloponnesus too, according to Ephorus, was called "Pelasgia."
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece, Constantinople, and Asia Minor. During the Ottoman rule of Greece, a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core, notably in Southern Italy, the Caucasus, Syria and Egypt. By the early 20th century, over half of the overall Greek-speaking population was settled in Asia Minor (now Turkey). During the 20th century, a huge wave of migration to the United States, Australia, Canada and elsewhere created a Greek diaspora.
The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is the language, which has enjoyed a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day, some 3400 years. The Byzantinist Robert Browning, compares its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone.Browning, R. Medieval and Modern Greek, Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-521-23488-3
Modern scholars and scientists have supported the notion that there is a dominant racial connection to the ancient Greeks. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, and Alberto Piazza, have found evidence of a genetic connection between the ancient and modern Greeks.Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi and A. Piazza. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0691087504 Recent genetic analyses of Greek populations have provided strong evidence supporting the existence of overwhelmingly significant levels of continuity between ancient Greeks and modern Greeks (low admixture attributed to genetic isolation due to physical barriers such as hills and mountains).M. Richards, V. Macaulay, E. Hickey, E. Vega, B. Sykes, et al. "Tracing European Founder Lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA Pool." The American Journal of Human Genetics, (2000), 67:1251-1276.F. Di Giacomo, F. Luca, N. Anagnou, G. Ciavarella, R. M. Corbo, M. Cresta, F. Cucci, L. Di Stasi, V. Agostiano, M. Giparaki, A. Loutradis, C. Mammi, E. N. Michalodimitrakis, F. Papola, G. Pedicini, E. Plata, L. Terrenato, S. Tofanelli, P. Malaspina, and A. Novelletto. "Clinal Patterns of Human Y chromosomal Diversity in Continental Italy and Greece Are Dominated by Drift and Founder Effects." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. (2003), 28:387–395. (Online text)Ornella Semino, Chiara Magri, Giorgia Benuzzi, Alice A. Lin, Nadia Al-Zahery, Vincenza Battaglia, Liliana Maccioni, Costas Triantaphyllidis, Peidong Shen, Peter J. Oefner, Lev A. Zhivotovsky, Roy King, Antonio Torroni, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A. Underhill, and A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti. "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area." The American Journal of Human Genetics, (2004), 74:1023–1034. (Online text)Simoni et al. "Patterns of Gene Flow Inferred from Genetic Distances in the Mediterranean Region." Human Biology, (1999), 71:399-415.
Greeks speak the Greek language, an Indo-European language which forms a branch in itself, although seems to be more closely related to Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian) and the Indo-Iranian languages.BBC: Languages across Europe: Greek Greek literature has a continuous history of nearly 3,000 years, and has been written in the Greek alphabet since the 9th century BCE.
Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with Romanian, Albanian and Bulgarian (see Balkan sprachbund), and has absorbed numerous foreign words (primarily of Western European or Turkish origin). Due to the movement of Philhellenism in the 19th century in the rest of Europe, which emphasized the modern Greeks\' ancient heritage, these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the usage of Katharevusa, a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words, as the official language of the Greek state. In 1976, however, the Greek parliament voted to make Dhimotiki, the modern dialect of Athens, the official language, making Katharevusa obsolete.
Greek has a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility, which in addition to official variety (Standard Modern Greek - Κοινή Νεοελληνική), include the Cypriot, Pontic, Cappadocian, Griko (Calabrian Greek) and Tsakonian (the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek) varieties. Yevanic, also known as Romaniote or Judeo-Greek, is the language of the Greek Jews (Romaniotes), and survives in small communities in Greece, New York and Israel.
Some members of the diaspora cannot speak Greek, but are still considered Greeks by ethnic origin or descent.
In addition to Greek, many Greeks in Greece are bilingual in other languages. Such languages include Arvanitic, Aromanian (also known as Vlach), Slavic (also known as Dopia), Russian, Italian, English, and Turkish. In the diaspora, most Greeks also speak the languages of the areas in which they live.
The majority of Greeks are Eastern Orthodox Christians, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church. There are also small groups adhering to other Christian denominations or religions. The main non-Orthodox Christian denomination are Roman Catholics, and more recently Evangelicals and other Protestant groups. Since the days of the Ottoman Empire there has been a Muslim minority within Greek society, and for much of its history, Greece has had a Jewish community.
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About 2,000 people are members of Dodekatheism congregations.Newstatesman - The ancient gods of Greece are not extinctTelegraph.co.uk - Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek godsThe US government gives a generic number of 2000.United States Department of State - International Religious Freedom Report 2006 The leaders of the movement put the number much higher: from 100,000 or 200,000 (1%, 2% of the total)Newstatesman - The ancient gods of Greece are not extinctTelegraph.co.uk - Modern Athenians fight for the right to worship the ancient Greek gods to 400,000 (4%)Euro News - in Italian Recently, Neopagans have been subject of discrimination issues.
The most widely used symbol used by Greeks is the flag of Greece, which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto "Ελευθερία ή θάνατος" (Eleftheria i thanatos – freedom or death), which was also the motto of the Greek War of Independence. The blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bears a white cross, which represents Greek Orthodox Christianity. The Greek flag is also widely used by the Greek community in Cyprus (which has officially adopted a neutral flag so as to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish minority – see flag of Cyprus), and by the Greek minority in Albania, which has led to ethnic clashes with the ethnic Albanian majority.
The pre-1978 (and first) flag of Greece, which features a cross on a blue background, is widely used as an alternative to the official flag, and they are often flown together. The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross totally surrounded by two laurel branches. A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre-1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front.
Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double-headed eagle, the imperial emblem of the Byzantine Empire and a common symbol in Eastern Europe. It is not currently part of the modern Greek flag or coat of arms, although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece. It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926.
Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics. Occupation, characteristic and location/origin-based surnames names also occur. Due to the lack of written records prior to the 19th century, surnames were not formally maintained and could be changed by occupation or characteristic. After the advent of widespread written records, surnames have remained constant handed down from father to children.
Some key historical events have also been included for context, but this timeline is not intended to cover history not related to migrations. There is more information on the historical context of these migrations in History of Greece.
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Indo-European topics |
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| Indo-European languages |
| Albanian · Armenian · Baltic Celtic · Germanic · Greek Indo-Iranian (Indo-Aryan, Iranian) Italic · Slavic extinct: Anatolian ·
Paleo-Balkans (Dacian, |
| Indo-European peoples |
| Albanians · Armenians Balts · Celts · Germanic peoples Greeks · Indo-Aryans Iranians · Latins · Slavs historical: Anatolians (Hittites, Luwians) |
| Proto-Indo-Europeans |
| Language · Society · Religion |
| Urheimat hypotheses |
| Kurgan hypothesis · Anatolia Armenia · India · PCT |
| Indo-European studies |
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